ad hominem definition english literature

ad hominem definition english literature

Exploring the Use of Ad Hominem in English Literature

1. Introduction to Ad Hominem

Some medieval and Renaissance rhetoricians brought the ad hominem argument into such disrepute that with a little bent, they could be represented as founders and perhaps central practitioners of the argument. What these rhetoricians in fact did contribute to the development of ad hominem attack was a deliberateness and clarity about its purposes that only comparatively rarely appears in the literary material prior to the early nineteenth century. These late medieval and Renaissance pioneers saw the ad hominem as a means of silencing opposition, entertaining an audience, sharpening wit, and as a defensive tactic when rhetorical or dialectical failure loomed.

As an often-stated principle of reasoning, the relevance and fairness of an ad hominem attack enjoyed centuries of acceptance. Socrates and his pupils engaged in it. Saint Augustine patronized it, Saint Thomas Aquinas institutionalized it, the Renaissance humanists advocated and enjoyed it, and the eighteenth century praised and allowed it. Not until the second half of the nineteenth century did the efficacy and rhetorical acceptability of ad hominem attack begin to be seriously challenged. Today, of course, the ad hominem is often used as rhetorical shorthand for a specious or irrelevant counterargument or attack upon one’s opponent’s character or perceived social status rather than upon the soundness of his argument. Because of its much wider and sometimes unflattering modern pejorative implications, it is prudent to remember this in the examination of some of the first advocates of selective rhetorical refutations. They can frequently be seen indulging and even exploiting, for their entertainment and advantage, the tactics and possible art of ad hominem attack.

2. Historical Background and Evolution of Ad Hominem in English Literature

In Ancient Greece, the term κακός δαίμων, according to clinical evidence, is used to refer to this ad hominem action as obnoxious behavior. There is ad hominem within this term and there is an ad hominem “container” as well. If we are to acknowledge that the term Ad hominem itself is quite ancient, then we should note that through a continuous and uninterrupted paratextual transmission, over time, it came to signify something else. Digitally speaking, the άξις itself, as formed by Aristotle around the term, still denotes the need for the theory within which the dialectic and rhetoric are found, so that one may discern forms from the opposite, and be able to find the distinction and discrimination process during the search for meaning throughout an ad hominem treatise. Aristotle apparently remains quite consistent and faithful to ad hominem, as actually featured within the Pragmatics, where one looks for the practice and its various significations, as well as for their compassion. According to him, one can achieve the various forms of persuasion with the sole aim of reaching the truth.

Ad hominem has long since been a part of human dialogue, but its use also goes back to as far as there have been historical records. Herein we refer to dialectical discourse, and hence ad hominem, as being quite ancient and its recorded use is as old as written history. Such use of this concept has quite a different and more honorable sense in human cognition and human history as well. Ad hominem has long since a historical, pragmatic and dialogical function blended between two altogether different and distinct aspects. One is the naturalistic focus in relation to fallacies, offending, personalizing and dialectical conversation. The antiphonal recourse to emotions and personal characters during conflicting arguments as well as the way in which one’s character throws light on the findings and evidence acquired can be examined from the perspective of ancient knowledge.

3. Notable Examples of Ad Hominem in Classic English Literary Works

Most characters in the novel are comic, and the mockery is sustained through the use of ad hominem arguments. Nothing is less customary than a sawney democrat, and foreign mockers, among whom England is really bushed like a nobility pensioner, indulge hourly in malevolent ad hominem variations. They have been dignified in prose, poetry, and even opera. Firstly, the series founder Horace did not use the technique strategically across his own poetry, and secondly, upon the occasions when he did employ it, he used it very ad hoc. Unlike Poictiers’ work, and most other critics of the first half of the 18th century, however, Young does not use ad hominem terms to attack the anthology editors.

Various notable authors also used ad hominem in their works. Jonathan Swift decided to use this technique in “The Battle of the Books,” a blank verse and prose satire attacking contemporary society. Mark Twain’s “Letters from the Earth” expressed his reservations about human morality and accepted religious beliefs that he had long felt but had been reluctant to express. The pamphlet focuses on Farebrother as an individual, subjecting him to ad hominem arguments that suggest he was in financial difficulties and should be moved on. Dickens’ “A Christmas Carol” is as popular now as it was when first published in 1843. Contemporaries were attracted by its religious and moral overtones, particularly at a time when the excesses of the industrial revolution were evident. The Ghost of Christmas Present even labeled some of the people he detained for Scrooge to see as Ignorance and Want.

4. The Impact and Effectiveness of Ad Hominem in Literature

Ad hominems are not the focus of this work, but they appear in the course of nearly every event, or, if that is too strong a claim, almost every type of stylistic edge. These examples remind us that we must not lose sight of the fact that, while ad hominems as a group embody certain common qualities that have been subject to keen analysis, they are not simply extensions of these particular mechanistic or Cicero archetypes into a more modern, elective context. They tolerate slippery signification within and among their component members because of larger motives at work in the speaker or writer, which stem from the point and membership structure of the audience involved. They are drawn into cultural analyses based on general contents, rather than into studies based on historical context or broader rhetorical strategy. Accommodating this complexity within the framework of ad hominem arguments can direct the ways in which we argue and write persuasive discourse, both public and private.

Ad hominem arguments occur when personal attacks against an arguer take the place of (or are used to undermine) an argument on the basis of its contents or structure. Anonymous expressions and spoken abusive behavior have been a concern of teachers of writing and rhetoric and are now recognized as a basis for harassment in legal as well as academic venues. However, taunts, curses, reproach, and abuse likewise have opened up new opportunities for critical censorship and therefore for more effective public debate. In English literature, the ad hominem argument is not similarly recognized or analyzed. This neglect occurs at the popular as well as the academic level, even within studies expressly undertaken to analyze vile language as displayed in our major literary figures.

5. Conclusion and Future Implications

Ad hominem concerns remarks and expressions attached to a particular group of words in an argumentation provided in English literature. Since ad hominem arguments are conversational implicatures, we explain them through their premises or enable them with a deductive conclusion. A dialectical and dialogical account of fallacious reasoning empowers us to exercise our generally efficacious critical attitude in dealing with ad hominem. The dialectical strategies that we are going to examine do not tend to share traits that are typical of committed, pre-committed, or persuasive agents, but rather of self-protective and self-interested agents. Although English literature has recognized personal attack as a natural phenomenon, it has not been questioned in connection with its logical, argumentative, or rhetorical natures. We check the ad hominem argument against the so-called “modus operandi,” i.e., the classical means of advancing a given claim or standpoint.

This paper has shown that English literature is rich with arguments in which ad hominem is pronounced. These ad hominem arguments typically involve some personal attack, name-calling, or derogatory and sarcastic statements. Now, considering the ontological questions stated in the introduction, we have accomplished the following findings. Firstly, we have shown that ad hominem as an argument can be successfully interpreted using ordinary linguistic expressions found in dictionaries. Secondly, appealing to ad hominem arguments can be justified by taking conversational implicature into account. Finally, our treatment of ad hominem in real-life fallacies does not seem to be motivated by fallacy fallacy and is in accordance with the general purpose we have assumed. Ad hominem is a negative term for a particular conversational implicature and refers to a violation of the burden of proving the disputed issue.