anthropological linguistics

anthropological linguistics

Exploring the Intersection of Anthropology and Linguistics: A Comprehensive Study of Anthropological Linguistics

1. Introduction to Anthropological Linguistics

In the broadest possible sense, anthropological linguistics is that branch of the study of language which focuses on the interrelationships between language and culture. Whereas modern linguistics is essentially language-centered, that is, it examines the component parts and structures of language as discrete entities, anthropological linguistics is culture-centered. Of course, the linguists and the anthropologists also study language in usage, but each does so for different purposes. Certain language phenomena in societies, such as specialized vocabularies for certain activities, serve as indicators of certain categories of behavior; and the frequency of use of certain language forms by different speakers reveals social structure not only as expressed through functional positions but also as a factor that differentiates society in ways not directly related to functional positions. Furthermore, different societies have different uses for their languages; consequently, the cultures generate different ‘language structures.’

2. Theoretical Foundations and Key Concepts

Throughout history, scholars have applied various methodologies, concepts, and theories to study the proximate and ultimate aspects of what makes humans unique as animals, particularly the roles of their forms of behavior and organization—afforded by their abilities to think and communicate symbolically—in influencing both the evolution and fitness of organisms or groups. Designated as the discipline of anthropology within the contemporary academic world, the formal study of evolution, culture, and society appeared at the turn of the twentieth century, with linguistic anthropology, and its goals and concerns, eventually separating from an original interest in normative grammar and linguistics. Building on its roots and place in the field, anthropology today continues to apply a four-field approach distinguishing itself from other disciplines by maintaining a primary focus on human beings as the most complex amalgamations of organism, society, and culture.

This chapter introduces the field of anthropological linguistics, or the intersection of anthropology and linguistics studying humankind’s unique communicative capability. It looks at historical perspectives on the study of language and culture within the discipline, sets out the goals and foci of anthropological linguistics, and presents the principal themes we address throughout the book. The discussion emphasizes the socially constituted, mutually constitutive, and historical nature of language and culture—their emergent forms and meanings in past and present social groups—as well as the importance of both language and culture to qualities that make humans human. As ensembles of symbolic forms informing social action and relations, language and culture are therefore central to understanding the notion of humankind or the human species as both a collective subject and object of academic study.

3. Methodological Approaches in Anthropological Linguistics

Very little, however, has been done within the field of anthropology to confront antecedent anthropological linguistics with such simple methodological problems as a confrontation with a completely distinct type of cultural entity. In this phase of the development of general principles, near and far comparisons, inclusiveness and mutual exclusiveness, genetic and nongenetic conceptualizations, and inventories of significant differences in various levels of systems of relationships all remain concealed within broad pragmatic rationales. This general neglect of methodological concepts prevents a reduction of ambiguities and provides only fragmentary descriptions of the various applications of linguistic evidence and processes. Indeed, even those concentric anthropologists who do recognize language as a natural unit are uncommon in their recognition of the methodological implications of their positions. There is apparently no practice or theory relative to the methods best suited to utilize linguistic evidence.

Many of the modifications of the standard historical method have been thrust upon linguists by the enormous methodological difficulties presented by historical linguistic research. The peculiar difficulties of historical linguistic research have forced linguists to arrive at clear understandings of certain of the basic problems in the application of comparative method. A sharp separation of genealogical investigation from typological has been necessitated by such problems as interlingual diffusion. General methods of comparative inquiry are being clarified in response to discussions among students of entirely different language families. There is a developing understanding of general linguistic principles and the extent to which they influence genealogical reconstruction.

4. Case Studies and Applications in Anthropological Linguistics

Throughout the book, we have tried to indicate and underscore concerns and difficulties which arise in anthropological research. In order to suggest some more concrete strategies and tactics, however, this chapter revisits most of the concerns in the context of several case studies. Anthropological linguistics is comprised of a number of challenging and exciting problems. A solution of one or a number of these problems could repay many times over the effort and energy expended. Anthropological linguistics still offers the excitement and challenge in very large doses. For the social issues of the day, its expertise is invaluable. Most vulgarly, we could claim that the only currently significant application of transformational grammar and such related issues as bipolar opposition theory are in anthropological linguistics in terms of the cost/benefit ratio of this work for the community at large. However, speaking more broadly, solutions to anthropological problems would pass over very easily into linguistics, while the reverse can never be the case.

5. Future Directions and Implications for Anthropological Research

Second, future research in the area of anthropological linguistics needs to readdress the issue of the nature of inferences based upon linguistic data. Certainly, the structure of the language can be used to form insightful generalizations about larger cultural and social phenomena, and caution is always advised in making broad generalizations about the subjects of a culture that includes a majority of the people from that culture. However, what can we really infer about the relationship between grammatical categories and changes in cultural entities such as the kinship system, an economic partnership, social stability, the political system, or religious consciousness that might be taking place in the community that uses that language?

First, continued research is needed to integrate the individual central topics of phonology, morphology, and syntax into a holistic descriptive process. Ideally, such descriptions stand in their complex context of meaningful communicative situations. An integration of aspects of pragmatics, discourse analysis, ethnopragmatics, and the interpretation of emic judgments needs to be integrated into the phonological, lexical, and grammatical description of the language.

Although the field of anthropological linguistics has accumulated a substantial body of knowledge and analysis techniques, there are many avenues for future research and inquiry. This review has identified three major areas in which future attention is called for.