quakers definition us history

quakers definition us history

The Evolution of Quakerism in American History

1. Introduction to Quakerism

The focus is upon the evolution of the variety of Quaker organizational forms through which this ‘opening can be expressed. For the first two generations, the Society of Friends in England experienced rapid evolutionary experimentation. In the seventeenth century, Quakerism originated and was a radical and evolving social protest movement. After the Restoration the evolving process within the community was controlled and suppressed, but the evolving process continued as transatlantic migration permitted new daughter meetings to escape from the authority of London Yearly Meeting. Individual American Yearly Meetings, as well, have discovered and implemented numerous ways in which Friends can ‘mind the leadings of the Spirit’ as collective groups. Concern for the poor, the importance of direct and unmediated religious experience, the unique rights of the individual conscience, and the belief that Jesus died for everyone have been central elements of liberal theology in Christianity over these many centuries. Quakerism, from its beginning, committed itself to these beliefs with an uncommon passion.

Though it now constitutes only a small religious sect – numbering less than 200,000 members according to the Yearly Meeting Websites – the history of the Religious Society of Friends is an important part of the story of the religious development of the United States. Annalist literature has portrayed Quakerism negatively, as a staid and monolithic and backward-looking tradition. Yet, until the middle of the nineteenth century, this tradition was vigorously evolving. The Grain of the Wood reviewed the mystical theological tradition within which Quakerism emerged and which has been a source of its central characteristic, the leading of the Spirit. Friends ‘open’ silent meeting for collective waiting upon the Light, however variously described, and they seriously take into consideration messages and insights garnered during these periods of waiting.

2. Quakerism’s Arrival in America

One of the principal reasons that the Quakers were so persecuted in the early days of their religious society was their actions. They were forced by their inner “Inward Light” to act upon their beliefs and to actively propagandize for their Truth. Such actions were misunderstood and bitterly hated by the Puritans, who viewed the Quaker presence as anathema. Therefore, the early Friends would wreak havoc and cause discord wherever they settled, for they had come to “quake the foundations” of the old established order. As Scholnick has observed, in 1656 the basic tenets of Quakerism were more important than the foibles of Mary Fisher and Ann Austin. The Friends (then and now) were soon jailed and otherwise persecuted for “bearing witness” – pacifist refusal to pay tithes to support the established church, refusal to remove their hats or employ titles of reverence before their social “betters,” seeking equality for women in Mosaic Law and ecclesiastical matter, obeying their individual “Inward Light” rather than the ecclesiastical or temporal laws of the King, announcing to all that the traditional outward sacraments were not necessary, actively engaging potential converts, and appealing to people’s consciences.

The first Quakers came to America with the early settlers, stepping foot on what was to become the United States in the 1650s. Their visits were met with bitter persecution. Mary Fisher and Ann Austin arrived in Boston in 1656 with a warrant for their arrest, but a huge mob had assembled to welcome them and hear them preach. They were summarily arrested for their impudence, stripped and searched by female bystanders, and then held for over 12 weeks in a stinking, lightless prison cell. With this inauspicious beginning, Puritan Massachusetts would become the primary focus of early Quaker persecution, particularly from 1656 to 1661. Indeed, Massachusetts punished Quakers with flogging, imprisonment with no light or heat, and transportation for persistent offenders. Exiled Quakers who returned to Massachusetts would become capital offenders with the passage of The Great Law in 1658. However, the Friends would face official persecution in the other British colonies as well.

3. Quaker Beliefs and Practices

Various practices point to the early history of Quakerism during the late 17th and early 18th centuries, a time of personal and intercultural struggle for members of the Religious Society of Friends. The traditional Quaker practice of orienting themselves towards social justice is driven by the fundamental theology of the Inner Light, from which Quakers derive ideas of social equality. Quakers have traditionally acted to set themselves apart from other members of their society by avoiding the prevailing customs—those practices or societal institutions that they view as unjust. Quaker testimonies to equality, justice, and simplicity act as long traditions of action for the various social justice movements of later decades. Quaker social reform work encompasses various emphasis, with members throughout history seen as influential in the American abolition movement, suffragist and gender equality movements, relief of European Jews and other minority groups during World War II, and the advent of a green economy in the United States. Not restricted to this, Quakers have been seen as active in many other humanitarian justice and relief efforts in the past several centuries in America and across the globe. Quakers have modified these views over time, and in recent years, the practices of various individuals have begun to straddle these traditional boundaries.

Quaker theology emphasizes the idea of the ‘Inner Light’ or presence of the divinity of God within each individual. This uniquely Quaker idea narrows the separation between humanity and God, as Quaker theology more broadly emphasizes individual reflection and contemplation of one’s ‘light’ to be one of the most useful resources in understanding the divine will. Quakers typically sit in unprogrammed silence during their Sunday services, during which all members are equally capable to speak if moved to do so by the presence of the Inner Light. Masses of large gatherings of Friends exist across the theological and cultural spectrums. Evangelical Quakers typically embody a more conservative Christianity while still practicing in the tradition of unprogrammed worship. Oftentimes, Evangelical Quakers are members of one of the three American Yearly Meetings.

4. Quakers’ Impact on American Society and Politics

Much of the success of Quakers in this area of involvement may be attributed to the fact of their long and deep concern for moral and spiritual matters and the virtues of integrity, honesty, and self-discipline. Their organizational structure has contributed to this success, too. Unlike most religious groups, Quakers have been not a church but a “sect.” That is, they were separate from the secular world and its political arrangements; they lived their lives on their own terms under their own rules, rather than on terms established by outsiders. As a sect, they lived by a “church discipline” which regulated their lives to some considerable extent. Their lifestyle and religious beliefs were thus almost synonymous. The time and discipline required of members in order to maintain their strict interpretive separation from the world have had the effect of keeping them interested in religious matters and generally prosperous. The combination of the practice of such virtues as truthfulness, integrity, honesty, and self-discipline over generations has contributed to the development of prosperous, effective policy leaders.

Quakers have made a special contribution to American society and politics. They have been a persistent force for reform in matters of public policy such as the treatment of the Indians, the separation of church and state, the abolition of slavery, opposition to war and militarism, and prison reform. They undertook these responsibilities out of their “testimonies” to the moral and spiritual truths revealed. Quaker reform efforts contributed to the development of democratic, humane, and enlightened public policies. At the same time, it might be said that the Quaker movement became more responsive and worthy of its religious trust by its active engagement in political processes.

5. Modern Challenges and Opportunities for Quakerism

Beyond these questions of numerical total of a locally available membership, lie the issues of theological diversity and development. As a homogeneous and self-perpetuating sect, Quakerism surely is in demographic decline. But as a movement or tradition within the larger society, there is a great deal of vibrancy in how Quakerism is now expressed and lived. Quakers in the United States remain something of a bellwether group, in the forefront of many social movements. An ecumenical wing of Christianity which had early concerns about the environmental quality, economic justice, and fair trade relationships will react creatively to new challenges and opportunities when and if these arise. Quaker spiritual methods and practices are being seriously considered by people from other faith traditions who seek to enhance their religious lives. Quakerism is often seen in the United States as a minor and fairly peculiar Anabaptist theological denomination, but these facts of practice are better seen at a useful level of historical perspective. These are, in fact, religious practices and concerns, organizational structures and problems, not limited to an older and smaller Protestant sect, but touching indeed on areas of such religious and philosophical transcendence that all people are in some sense concerned.

A variety of modern challenges and opportunities currently face Quakerism in the United States. Probably the number one challenge has arisen from the fact that Quakerism now represents less than one third of one percent of the American population. Most Quaker Meetings in the United States now struggle with issues of membership and with dwindling attendance by many of those who claim membership. The presence of aging membership populations creates a related set of challenges to Meeting programming, funding, and mission. There is a real need to build more contacts with the non-Quaker public to boost the appeal of Quakerism in the larger society.